In comparison, the combustion of two hydrogen gas molecules with one oxygen gas molecule releases only 5.7 eV. The brightest stars, on either scale, have negative magnitude numbers.
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During their stellar evolution, some stars pass through phases where they can become pulsating variables. Later a numbering system based on the star's right ascension was invented and added to John Flamsteed's star catalogue in his book "Historia coelestis Britannica" (the 1712 edition), whereby this numbering system came to be called Flamsteed designation or Flamsteed numbering.
A plot of the temperature of many stars against their luminosities produces a plot known as a Hertzsprung–Russell diagram (H–R diagram). The table at the left shows the amount of time required for a star of 20 M☉ to consume all of its nuclear fuel. [162][163], As atomic nuclei are fused in the core, they emit energy in the form of gamma rays.
This movement of conductive plasma functions like a dynamo, wherein the movement of electrical charges induce magnetic fields, as does a mechanical dynamo. Other characteristics of a star, including diameter and temperature, change over its life, while the star's environment affects its rotation and movement. [65][66] When a region reaches a sufficient density of matter to satisfy the criteria for Jeans instability, it begins to collapse under its own gravitational force.[67]. The star then follows an evolutionary path called the asymptotic giant branch (AGB) that parallels the other described red giant phase, but with a higher luminosity. Cataclysmic or explosive variable stars are those that undergo a dramatic change in their properties.
[23], According to Josep Puig, the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah proposed that the Milky Way was made up of many stars that almost touched one another and appeared to be a continuous image due to the effect of refraction from sublunary material, citing his observation of the conjunction of Jupiter and Mars on 500 AH (1106/1107 AD) as evidence.
Stars are not spread uniformly across the universe, but are normally grouped into galaxies along with interstellar gas and dust.
The star's internal pressure prevents it from collapsing further under its own gravity.
A binary star system that includes a nearby white dwarf can produce certain types of these spectacular stellar explosions, including the nova and a Type 1a supernova. When nuclei fuse, the mass of the fused product is less than the mass of the original parts.
Stars condense from regions of space of higher matter density, yet those regions are less dense than within a vacuum chamber. [35], Massive main sequence stars can have surface temperatures of 50,000 K. Smaller stars such as the Sun have surface temperatures of a few thousand K. Red giants have relatively low surface temperatures of about 3,600 K; but they also have a high luminosity due to their large exterior surface area.[141]. The corona region of the Sun is normally only visible during a solar eclipse.
If what remains after the outer atmosphere has been shed is less than roughly 1.4 M☉, it shrinks to a relatively tiny object about the size of Earth, known as a white dwarf. Instead, it was more complicated: it strengthened with increasing temperature, peaked near 9000 K, and then declined at greater temperatures.
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