The bipolar cells also synapse on amacrine cells (AC), which make inhibitory synapses back onto bipolar cells and forward onto amacrine cells and ganglion cells. Some types of ganglion cells also make electrical synapses with amacrine cells or with other ganglion cells of the same type.
As the depolarization spreads, it loses its magnitude and MUST be actively
generated (propagated) to move far. The axons from these ganglion cells segregate in the optic nerve and the segregation remains intact all the way up the neural pathways to the visual cortex. Neurons are specially adapted for the transmission of electrical signals. OFF-type cone bipolar cells terminate in the outer half of the IPL, where they contact the dendrites of OFF ganglion cells. This initiates the docking of the vesicles
at the presynaptic neuron's membrane in an active zone through the action
of docking proteins (synaptotagamin, synaptobrevin, syntaxin). ON–OFF ganglion cells receive input from both types of bipolar cells. The EPSP must build up in the postsynaptic neuron to the threshold
level to allow the formation of an action potential. The cytosol is high in potassium due to the sodium-potassium pump. On the other hand, blocking only cholinergic transmission reduces the directional tuning of inhibitory inputs to DSGCs (Fried, S. I. et al., 2005), which may explain the finding that for certain stimuli, such as gratings, cholinergic blockers cause a decrease in ganglion cell DS (Grzywacz, N. M. et al., 1998). adjacent cells pass molecules from one cell\'s cytoplasm to another through cell junctions. Once the membrane potential peaks, the repolarizing phase begins with
the inactivation of the sodium channels (blocking the Hodgkin cycle) and
the opening of the voltage-gated potassium channels. Voltage-gated ion channels respond to differences in voltage across
the membrane (ligand-gated ion channels respond to ligands). Ganglion cells are the only retinal neurons communicating directly with the brain.
Action potentials are propagated along the axon without losing strength
by active propagation as follows:
The passive spread of depolarization causes
cations (mostly potassium) to spread to adjacent regions of the axon's
cytoplasm. Conduction occurs exclusively, 23. Within each axon terminal are sacs, known as vesicles, filled with one of 50 different chemicals called neurotransmitters. For neurotransmitters to work effectively and not overstimulate or inhibit,
they must be neutralized shortly after their release by either degradation
or recovery by the presynaptic neuron. The implication is that each ganglion cell type forms a specialized channel sculpted by evolutionary pressures to fulfill specific visual functions. In the rat retina, bidirectional electrical coupling between α ganglion cells resulted in precisely synchronized firing after current injection and electron microscopy revealed dendrodendritic Cx36 gap junctions at contact points between dye-coupled α ganglion cells (Hidaka, S. et al., 2004). There are six target regions for ganglion cell axons: the suprachiasmatic nucleus; the accessory optic system, consisting of the medial terminal nucleus, the lateral terminal nucleus and the dorsal terminal nucleus; the superior colliculus, the pretectum; the pregeniculate; and the multiple layers and sublayers of the lateral geniculate nucleus.
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